Among the therapeutic agents used to treat cancer are the taxanes and vinca alkaloids, which act on microtubules. Microtubules are the primary structural element of the mitotic spindle. The mitotic spindle is responsible for distribution of replicate copies of the genome to each of the two daughter cells that result from cell division. It is presumed that disruption of the mitotic spindle by these drugs results in inhibition of cancer cell division, and induction of cancer cell death. However, microtubules form other types of cellular structures, including tracks for intracellular transport in nerve processes. Because these agents do not specifically target mitotic spindles, they have side effects that limit their usefulness.
Improvements in the specificity of agents used to treat cancer is of considerable interest because of the therapeutic benefits which would be realized if the side effects associated with the administration of these agents could be reduced. Traditionally, dramatic improvements in the treatment of cancer are associated with identification of therapeutic agents acting through novel mechanisms. Examples of this include not only the taxanes, but also the camptothecin class of topoisomerase I inhibitors. From both of these perspectives, mitotic kinesins are attractive targets for new anti-cancer agents.
Mitotic kinesins are enzymes essential for assembly and function of the mitotic spindle, but are not generally part of other microtubule structures, such as in nerve processes. Mitotic kinesins play essential roles during all phases of mitosis. These enzymes are “molecular motors” that transform energy released by hydrolysis of ATP into mechanical force which drives the directional movement of cellular cargoes along microtubules. The catalytic domain sufficient for this task is a compact structure of approximately 340 amino acids. During mitosis, kinesins organize microtubules into the bipolar structure that is the mitotic spindle. Kinesins mediate movement of chromosomes along spindle microtubules, as well as structural changes in the mitotic spindle associated with specific phases of mitosis. Experimental perturbation of mitotic kinesin function causes malformation or dysfunction of the mitotic spindle, frequently resulting in cell cycle arrest and cell death.
Among the mitotic kinesins which have been identified is KSP. KSP belongs to an evolutionarily conserved kinesin subfamily of plus end-directed microtubule motors that assemble into bipolar homotetramers consisting of antiparallel homodimers. During mitosis KSP associates with microtubules of the mitotic spindle. Microinjection of antibodies directed against KSP into human cells prevents spindle pole separation during prometaphase, giving rise to monopolar spindles and causing mitotic arrest and induction of programmed cell death. KSP and related kinesins in other, non-human, organisms, bundle antiparallel microtubules and slide them relative to one another, thus forcing the two spindle poles apart. KSP may also mediate in anaphase B spindle elongation and focussing of microtubules at the spindle pole.
Human KSP (also termed HsEg5) has been described (Blangy, et al., Cell, 83:1159–69 (1995); Whitehead, et al., Arthritis Rheum., 39:1635–42 (1996); Galgio et al., J. Cell Biol., 135:339–414 (1996); Blangy, et al., J Biol. Chem., 272:19418–24 (1997); Blangy, et al., Cell Motil Cytoskeleton, 40:174–82 (1998); Whitehead and Rattner, J. Cell Sci., 111:2551–61 (1998); Kaiser, et al., JBC 274:18925–31 (1999); GenBank accession numbers: X85137, NM004523 and U37426), and a fragment of the KSP gene (TRIP5) has been described (Lee, et al., Mol Endocrinol., 9:243–54 (1995); GenBank accession number L40372). Xenopus KSP homologs (Eg5), as well as Drosophila KLP61 F/KRP1 30 have been reported.
Mitotic kinesins are attractive targets for the discovery and development of novel mitotic chemotherapeutics. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide methods and compositions useful in the inhibition of KSP, a mitotic kinesin.
Phenothiazines have been known as psychopharmacologic agents for many years. Chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, perphenazine, trifluoperazine, promazine and thioridazine are typical examples. Inhibition of KSP by phenothiazines has not been described.